വിക്കിപീഡിയ

മീഡിയൻ ലീതൽ ഡോസ്

(Median lethal dose എന്ന താളിൽ നിന്നും തിരിച്ചുവിട്ടതു പ്രകാരം)

വിഷശാസ്ത്രത്തിൽ ഒരു വിഷത്തിന്റെയോ വിഷവസ്തുവിന്റെയോ റേഡിയേഷന്റെയോ മരണകാരണമാകാവുന്ന അളവിനെയാണ് മീഡിയൻ ലീതൽ ഡോസ് (the median lethal dose), LD50 ( "lethal dose, 50%" - എന്നതിന്റെ ചുരുക്കെഴുത്ത്), LC50 (lethal concentration, 50% -എന്നതിന്റെ ചുരുക്കെഴുത്ത്) അല്ലെങ്കിൽ LCt50. പരീക്ഷണവിധേയമായ സഞ്ചയത്തിലെ എണ്ണത്തിന്റെ പകുതിയെ പരീക്ഷണത്തിനുതീരുമാനിക്കുന്ന സമയത്തിനുള്ളിൽ കൊല്ലാനുള്ള ഡോസ് ആണ് LD50. LD50 വിവരങ്ങൾ ഒരു പദാർത്ഥത്തിന്റെ മാരകഅളവിനെ കുറിക്കാൻ മിക്കവാറും ഉപയോഗിച്ചുവരുന്നു. LD50 - ന്റെ വില കുറവാണെങ്കിൽ വിഷശക്തി കൂടുതലായിരിക്കും.

Conventions

തിരുത്തുക

പരിമിതികൾ

തിരുത്തുക

ഉദാഹരണങ്ങൾ

തിരുത്തുക

Note: വസ്തുക്കളുടെ (പ്രത്യേകിച്ച് മരുന്നുകൾ) പരസ്പരം LD50 താരതമ്യം ചെയ്യുന്നത് പല കേസുകളിലും (ഭാഗികമായി) ഫലപ്രദമായ ഡോസിലെ വ്യത്യാസങ്ങൾ (ED50) വഴി തെറ്റിദ്ധരിപ്പിക്കുന്നതാണ്. അതിനാൽ, അത്തരം പദാർത്ഥങ്ങളെ ചികിത്സാ സൂചിക ഉപയോഗിച്ച് താരതമ്യം ചെയ്യുന്നത് കൂടുതൽ ഉപയോഗപ്രദമാണ്. ഇത് LD50 മുതൽ ED50 വരെയുള്ള അനുപാതമാണ്.

The following examples are listed in reference to LD50 values, in descending order, and accompanied by LC50 values, {bracketed}, when appropriate.

Substance Animal, Route LD50
{LC50}
LD50 : g/kg
{LC50 : g/L}
standardized 		Reference
Water rat, oral >90,000 mg/kg >90 [1]
Sucrose (table sugar) rat, oral 29,700 mg/kg 29.7 [2]
Glucose (blood sugar) rat, oral 25,800 mg/kg 25.8 [3]
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) rat, oral 16,600 mg/kg 16.6 [4]
Stevioside (from stevia) mice & rats, oral >15,000 mg/kg 15 [5]
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) rat, oral 11,900 mg/kg 11.9 [6]
Lactose (milk sugar) rat, oral >10,000 mg/kg 10.0 [7]
Aspartame mice, oral >10,000 mg/kg 10.0 [8]
Urea rat, oral 8,471 mg/kg 8.471 [9]
Cyanuric acid rat, oral 7,700 mg/kg 7.7 [10]
Cadmium sulfide rat, oral 7,080 mg/kg 7.08 [11]
Ethanol (Grain alcohol) rat, oral 7,060 mg/kg 7.06 [12]
Sodium isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA, metabolite of sarin) rat, oral 6,860 mg/kg 6.86 [13]
Melamine rat, oral 6,000 mg/kg 6 [10]
Methanol rat, oral 5,628 mg/kg 5.628 [14]
Taurine rat, oral >5,000 mg/kg 5.0 [15]
Melamine cyanurate rat, oral 4,100 mg/kg 4.1 [10]
Fructose (fruit sugar) rat, oral 4,000 mg/kg 4 [16]
Sodium molybdate rat, oral 4,000 mg/kg 4 [17]
Sodium chloride (table salt) rat, oral 3,000 mg/kg 3 [18]
Paracetamol (acetaminophen) mouse, oral 338 mg/kg 0.338 [19]
Synthetic Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) + Polysorbate 80 rat, oral 1270 mg/kg 1.27 [20]
Cannabidiol (CBD) rat, oral [അവലംബം ആവശ്യമാണ്] 980 mg/kg 0.98 [21]
Metallic Arsenic rat, oral 763 mg/kg 0.763 [22]
Ibuprofen rat, oral 636 mg/kg 0.636 [23]
Formaldehyde rat, oral 600–800 mg/kg 0.600 [24]
Alkyl dimethyl benzalkonium chloride (ADBAC) rat, oral
fish, immersion
aquatic invertebrates, immersion 		304.5 mg/kg
{0.28 mg/L}
{0.059 mg/L} 		0.3045
{0.00028}
{0.000059} 		[25]
Coumarin (benzopyrone, from Cinnamomum aromaticum and other plants) rat, oral 293 mg/kg 0.293 [26]
Psilocybin (from magic mushrooms) mouse, oral 280 mg/kg 0.280 [27]
Hydrochloric acid rat, oral 238–277 mg/kg 0.238 [28]
Ketamine rat, intraperitoneal 229 mg/kg 0.229 [29]
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) rat, oral 200 mg/kg 0.2 [30]
Caffeine rat, oral 192 mg/kg 0.192 [31]
Arsenic trisulfide rat, oral 185–6,400 mg/kg 0.185–6.4 [32]
Sodium nitrite rat, oral 180 mg/kg 0.18 [33]
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) rat, oral 160 mg/kg 0.18 [34]
Uranyl acetate dihydrate mouse, oral 136 mg/kg 0.136 [35]
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) mouse, oral 135 mg/kg 0.135 [36]
Uranium mice, oral 114 mg/kg (estimated) 0.114 [37]
Bisoprolol mouse, oral 100 mg/kg 0.1 [38]
Cocaine mouse, oral 96 mg/kg 0.096 [39]
Cobalt(II) chloride rat, oral 80 mg/kg 0.08 [40]
Cadmium oxide rat, oral 72 mg/kg 0.072 [41]
Thiopental sodium (used in lethal injection) rat, oral 64 mg/kg 0.064 [42]
Methamphetamine rat, intraperitoneal 57 mg/kg 0.057 [43]
Sodium fluoride rat, oral 52 mg/kg 0.052 [44]
Pentaborane human, oral <50 mg/kg <0.05 [45]
Capsaicin mouse, oral 47.2 mg/kg 0.0472 [46]
Mercury(II) chloride rat, dermal 41 mg/kg 0.041 [47]
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) rat, oral 37 mg/kg 0.037 [48]
Piperidine (from black pepper) rat, oral 30 mg/kg 0.030 [49]
Heroin (diamorphine) mouse, intravenous 21.8 mg/kg 0.0218 [50]
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) rat, intravenous 16.5 mg/kg 0.0165 [51]
Arsenic trioxide rat, oral 14 mg/kg 0.014 [52]
Metallic Arsenic rat, intraperitoneal 13 mg/kg 0.013 [53]
Nicotine human, oral

mice, oral

6.5–13.0 mg/kg (estimated)

3.34 mg/kg

0.0065–0.013

0.0034

[54]

[55]

Sodium cyanide rat, oral 6.4 mg/kg 0.0064 [56]
Hydrogen cyanide mouse, oral 3.7 mg/kg 0.0037 [57]
Chlorotoxin (CTX, from scorpions) mice 4.3 mg/kg 0.0043 [58]
White phosphorus rat, oral 3.03 mg/kg 0.00303 [59]
Strychnine human, oral 1–2 mg/kg (estimated) 0.001 [60]
Cantharidin (from blister beetles) human, oral 500 µg/kg 0.0005
Aflatoxin B1 (from Aspergillus flavus mold) rat, oral 480 µg/kg 0.00048 [61]
Plutonium dog, intravenous 320 µg/kg 0.00032 [62]
Amatoxin (from Amanita phalloides mushrooms) rat 300-700 µg/kg 0.0007 [63]
Tetrodotoxin (TTX, from blue-ringed octopus) mice, oral 334 µg/kg 0.000334 [64]
Fentanyl monkey 300 µg/kg 0.0003 [65]
Bufotoxin (from Bufo toads) cat, intravenous 300 µg/kg 0.000300 [66]
Sarin mouse, subcutaneous injection 172 µg/kg 0.000172 [67]
Robustoxin (from Sydney funnel-web spider) mice 150 µg/kg 0.000150 [68]
VX human, oral, inhalation, absorption through skin/eyes 140 µg/kg (estimated) 0.00014 [69]
Venom of the Brazilian wandering spider rat, subcutaneous 134 µg/kg 0.000134 [70]
Venom of the Inland Taipan (Australian snake) rat, subcutaneous 25 µg/kg 0.000025 [71]
Ricin (from castor oil plant) rat, intraperitoneal
rat, oral 		22 μg/kg
20–30 mg/kg 		0.000022
0.02 		[72]
Carfentanil human, oral 20 µg/kg 0.00002 [73]
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD, in Agent Orange) rat, oral 20 µg/kg 0.00002 [74]
CrTX-A (from box jellyfish venom) crayfish, intraperitoneal 5 µg/kg 0.000005 [75]
Latrotoxin (from widow spider venom) mice 4.3 µg/kg 0.0000043 [76]
Batrachotoxin (from poison dart frog) human, sub-cutaneous injection 2–7 µg/kg (estimated) 0.000002 [77]
Abrin (from rosary pea) mice, intravenously

human, inhalation

human, oral

0.7 µg/kg

3.3 µg/kg

10–1000 µg/kg

0.0000007

0.0000033

0.00001–0.001

Maitotoxin (from ciguateric fish) mouse, intraperitoneal 0.13 µg/kg 0.00000013 [78]
Polonium-210 human, inhalation 10 ng/kg (estimated) 0.00000001 [79]
Diphtheria toxin mice 10 ng/kg 0.00000001 [80]
Shiga toxin (from dysentery) mice 2 ng/kg 0.000000002 [80]
Tetanospasmin (tetanus toxin) mice 2 ng/kg 0.000000002 [80]
Botulinum toxin (Botox) human, oral, injection, inhalation 1 ng/kg (estimated) 0.000000001 [81]
Ionizing radiation human, irradiation 5 Gy [82]


മാരകമായ ഡോസുകളുടെ താരതമ്യം ലോഗരിതമിക് സ്കെയിൽ ലളിതമാക്കുന്നു [83]

 
വിഷ സ്കെയിൽ

മൃഗാവകാശസംഘടനകളുടെ ഉൽക്കണ്ഠ

തിരുത്തുക

Animal-rights and animal-welfare groups, such as Animal Rights International,[84] have campaigned against LD50 testing on animals. Several countries, including the UK, have taken steps to ban the oral LD50, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) abolished the requirement for the oral test in 2001 (see Test Guideline 401, Trends in Pharmacological Sciences Vol 22, February 22, 2001).

ഇവയും കാണുക

തിരുത്തുക
  • Animal testing
  • Reed-Muench method

വിഷത്തെ അളക്കുന്ന മറ്റുരീതികൾ

തിരുത്തുക

ബന്ധപ്പെട്ട അളവുകൾ

തിരുത്തുക
  • TCID50 Tissue Culture Infective Dosage
  • EID50 Egg Infective Dosage
  • ELD50 Egg Lethal Dosage
  • Plaque forming units (pfu)

അവലംബം

തിരുത്തുക
  1. ↑ "Material Safety Data Sheet Water MSDS". Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD50 verification. Archived from the original on 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  2. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for sucrose". Archived from the original on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  3. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for glucose" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-01. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  4. ↑ Walker R, Lupien JR (April 2000). "The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (4S Suppl): 1049S–52S. PMID 10736380.
  5. ↑ Toskulkao C, Chaturat L, Temcharoen P, Glinsukon T (1997). "Acute toxicity of stevioside, a natural sweetener, and its metabolite, steviol, in several animal species". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 20 (1–2): 31–44. doi:10.3109/01480549709011077. PMID 9183561.
  6. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid". Oxford University. 2005-10-09. Archived from the original on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-02-21.
  7. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for Lactose" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-03. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  8. ↑ "ആർക്കൈവ് പകർപ്പ്" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  9. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for urea". 2015-03-06. Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD50 verification. Archived from the original on 2015-03-01. Retrieved 2015-03-06.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 A.A. Babayan, A.V.Aleksandryan, "Toxicological characteristics of melamine cyanurate, melamine and cyanuric acid", Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Klinicheskoi Meditsiny, Vol.25, 345–9 (1985). Original article in Russian.
  11. ↑ Advanced Search – Alfa Aesar – A Johnson Matthey Company Archived 2015-07-24 at the Wayback Machine.. Alfa.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  12. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for ethyl alcohol". Archived from the original on 2011-07-14. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  13. ↑ Mecler, Francis J. (May 1981). Mammalian Toxological Evaluation of DIMP and DCBP (Phase 3 – IMPA) (Final report ed.). Litton Bionetics, Inc. The oral LD50 values for the test material, IMPA, were 7650 and 6070 mg/kg for male and female rats, respectively.[പ്രവർത്തിക്കാത്ത കണ്ണി]
  14. ↑ Safety (MSDS) data for methanol
  15. ↑ Safety data for taurine
  16. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for fructose". Archived from the original on 2017-07-02. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  17. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium molybdate". Archived from the original on 2011-01-28. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  18. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium chloride". Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  19. ↑ Safety (MSDS) data for paracetamol
  20. ↑ "Inhalation, parenteral and oral LD50 values of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Fischer rats". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 28: 18–27. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(74)90126-4.
  21. ↑ "MSDS of CBD" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  22. ↑ [1] [പ്രവർത്തിക്കാത്ത കണ്ണി]
  23. ↑ MSDS of Ibuprofen
  24. ↑ "Formaldehyde SIDS Initial Assessment Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-06-13. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  25. ↑ Frank T. Sanders, ed. (August 2006). Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Alkyl Dimethyl Benzyl Ammonium Chloride (ADBAC) (PDF) (Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. p. 114. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-24. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
  26. ↑ Coumarin Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  27. ↑ Handbook of Mushroom Poisoning
  28. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrochloric acid". Archived from the original on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  29. ↑ Ketamine
  30. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for acetylsalicylic acid". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  31. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for caffeine". Archived from the original on 2007-10-16. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  32. ↑ "Material Safety Data Sheet – Spent Metal Catalyst" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28.
  33. ↑ Safety (MSDS) data for sodium nitrite[പ്രവർത്തിക്കാത്ത കണ്ണി]
  34. ↑ Gable RS (September 2004). "Acute toxic effects of club drugs". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 36 (3): 303–13. doi:10.1080/02791072.2004.10400031. PMID 15559678.
  35. ↑ Chemical toxicity of uranium
  36. ↑ Hayes, WJ (21 December 2013) [1959]. "Pharmacology and toxicology of DDT". In Müller, Paul; Simmons, Samuel William (eds.). DDT: The Insecticide Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and Its Significance / Das Insektizid Dichlordiphenyltrichloräthan und Seine Bedeutung: Human and Veterinary Medicine. Vol. 2. Springer-Verlag. pp. 9–247. ISBN 978-3-0348-6809-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  37. ↑ http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/pub_meet/en/Depluranium4.pdf
  38. ↑ DrugBank data for bisoprolol
  39. ↑ DrugBank data for Cocaine
  40. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for cobalt (II) chloride". Archived from the original on 2011-04-07. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  41. ↑ Safety (MSDS) data for cadmium oxide[പ്രവർത്തിക്കാത്ത കണ്ണി]
  42. ↑ Thiopental sodium MSDS
  43. ↑ Kiyatkin EA, Sharma HS. "Acute methamphetamine intoxication: brain hyperthermia, blood-brain barrier, brain edema, and morphological cell abnormalities". Int Rev Neurobiol. 88: 65–100. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(09)88004-5. PMC 3145326. PMID 19897075.
  44. ↑ Sodium Fluoride MSDS
  45. ↑ Pentaborane chemical and safety data
  46. ↑ "Capsaicin Material Safety Data Sheet". sciencelab.com. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
  47. ↑ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/DisplayMSDSContent.doc
  48. ↑ MSDS for cholecalciferol crystalline
  49. ↑ "MSDS for piperidine (pepper)". Archived from the original on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  50. ↑ MSDS for diamorphine
  51. ↑ Erowid LSD (Acid) Vault : Fatalities / Deaths. Erowid.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  52. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for arsenic trioxide". Archived from the original on 2010-03-09. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  53. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for metallic arsenic". Archived from the original on 2011-01-14. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  54. ↑ Mayer B (January 2014). "How much nicotine kills a human? Tracing back the generally accepted lethal dose to dubious self-experiments in the nineteenth century". Archives of Toxicology. 88 (1): 5–7. doi:10.1007/s00204-013-1127-0. PMC 3880486. PMID 24091634.
  55. ↑ http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9926222
  56. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium cyanide". Archived from the original on 2009-01-13. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  57. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrogen cyanide" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  58. ↑ "Chlorotoxin: A Helpful Natural Scorpion Peptide to Diagnose Glioma and Fight Tumor Invasion".
  59. ↑ "Hexachloroethane" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-03.
  60. ↑ INCHEM: Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations: Strychnine.
  61. ↑ "Safety (MSDS) data for aflatoxin B1". Archived from the original on 2012-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  62. ↑ Los Alamos Science article for Plutonium toxicity
  63. ↑ Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides
  64. ↑ "Material Safety Data Sheet Tetrodotoxin ACC# 01139". Acros Organics N.V. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  65. ↑ [2]
  66. ↑ "nih.gov Datasheet for Bufotoxin".
  67. ↑ Inns RH, Tuckwell NJ, Bright JE, Marrs TC (July 1990). "Histochemical demonstration of calcium accumulation in muscle fibres after experimental organophosphate poisoning". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 9 (4): 245–50. doi:10.1177/096032719000900407. PMID 2390321.
  68. ↑ Sheumack DD, Baldo BA, Carroll PR, Hampson F, Howden ME, Skorulis A (1984). "A comparative study of properties and toxic constituents of funnel web spider (Atrax) venoms". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. C, Comparative Pharmacology and Toxicology. 78 (1): 55–68. doi:10.1016/0742-8413(84)90048-3. PMID 6146485.
  69. ↑ Munro, N. (Jan 1994). "Toxicity of the organophosphate chemical warfare agents GA, GB, and VX: implications for public protection". Environmental Health Perspectives. 102: 18–38. doi:10.1289/ehp.9410218. PMC 1567233. PMID 9719666.
  70. ↑ Venomous Animals and their Venoms, vol. III, ed. Wolfgang Bücherl and Eleanor Buckley
  71. ↑ LD50 for various snakes Archived 2012-02-01 at the Wayback Machine.. Seanthomas.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  72. ↑ EFSA – Scientific Opinion of the CONTAM Panel: Ricin (from Ricinus communis) as undesirable substances in animal feed [1] - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. Efsa.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
  73. ↑ "Chemical weapon for sale: China's unregulated narcotic". Retrieved 2016-07-10.
  74. ↑ U.S. National Toxicology Program acute toxicity studies for Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)
  75. ↑ Nagai, Hiroshi (2003). "Recent Progress in Jellyfish Toxin Study". Journal of Health Science. 49 (5): 337–340. doi:10.1248/jhs.49.337. ISSN 1344-9702. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  76. ↑ "ആർക്കൈവ് പകർപ്പ്". Archived from the original on 2016-12-26. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  77. ↑ Brief Review of Natural Nonprotein Neurotoxins
  78. ↑ Yokoyama A, Murata M, Oshima Y, Iwashita T, Yasumoto T (August 1988). "Some chemical properties of maitotoxin, a putative calcium channel agonist isolated from a marine dinoflagellate". Journal of Biochemistry. 104 (2): 184–7. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a122438. PMID 3182760.
  79. ↑ Topic 2 Toxic Chemicals and Toxic Effects Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine.
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 "ആർക്കൈവ് പകർപ്പ്" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-12. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  81. ↑ Fleming, Diane O.; Hunt, Debra Long (2000). Biological Safety: principles and practices. Washington, DC: ASM Press. p. 267. ISBN 1-55581-180-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  82. ↑ "European Nuclear Society". Archived from the original on 2018-08-04. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  83. ↑ Strey K (2019). "Die Gifte-Skala". Chemie in Unserer Zeit. 53 (6): 386–399. doi:10.1002/ciuz.201900828.
  84. ↑ Thirty-Two Years of Measurable Change Archived 2007-02-11 at the Wayback Machine.

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